Sunday, March 30, 2008

Tai Mathematica 5.2 For Student

Agenda of objections in Teacher Training Systems and Computer Applications

Block 01 - Information, Hardware, Architecture

Item 01 - Representation and communication of information.
Item 02 - Functional elements of a digital computer. Architecture.
Theme 03 - Components, structure and functioning of the Central Processing Unit.
Item 04 - Internal Memory. Types. Addressing. Features and functions.
Item 05 - Microprocessors. Structure. Types. Communication with the outside.
Item 06 - External Storage Systems. Types. Features and performance.
Item 07 - Device I / O peripherals. Features and performance.
Theme 08 - Components 'hardware' a computer commercial. Motherboard. Device controller boards and input / output.

Block 02 - Data, Internal representation and logical organization

Item 09 - Logic circuits. Combinational and sequential circuits.
Item 10 - Internal representation of data.
Topic 11 - Logical organization of data. Static structures.
Topic 12 - Logical organization of data. Dynamic structures.

Block 03 - Item 13

Files - Files. Types. Characteristics. Organizations.
Item 14 - Use of files according to your organization.

Block 04 - Operating Systems

Item 15 - Operating Systems. Components. Structure. Functions. Types.
Item 16 - Operating Systems: Process Management.
Item 17 - Operating Systems: Memory Management.
Item 18 - Operating Systems: Input / Output Management.
Item 19 - Operating Systems: Managing files and devices.
Item 20 - Operation and administration of a single-user operating system.
Item 21 - Operation and administration of a multiuser operating system.

Block 05 -

Systems Unit 22 - Computer. Physical and functional structure.
Item 23 - Installation of a computer. Environment. Elements. Connection. Configuration. Security measures.
Item 24 - Planning and operation of a computer system.

Block 06 - Algorithms and Programming

Item 25 - Design of algorithms. Descriptive techniques.
Item 26 - Programming languages. Types and characteristics.
Item 27 - Structured Programming. Basic structures. Functions and procedures.
Item 28 - Modular programming. Design functions. Recursion. Libraries.
Unit 29 - Object Oriented Programming. Objects. Classes. Inheritance. Polymorphisms.
Item 30 - Real-time programming. Interruptions. Synchronization and communication between tasks.
Unit 31 - Utilities for software development and testing. Compilers. Interpreters. Debuggers.
Item 32 - Techniques for the verification, testing and software documentation.
Item 33 - Programming in assembly language. Basic instructions. Formats. Routing.
Item 34 - Language C: general features. Language elements. Program structure. Library functions and user. Build environment. Tools for developing and debugging programs in C language
Item 35 - Language C: Handling dynamic data structures and static. Input and output data. Management pointers. Function pointers. Graphics C.

Block 07 - Databases

Topic 36 - Systems database managers. Functions. Components. Reference architecture and operational. Types of systems.
Item 37 - relational data model. Structure. Operations. Relational algebra.
Item 38 - language for data definition and manipulation systems relational databases. Types. Characteristics. SQL language.
Item 39 - Developing applications using relational databases.

Block 08 - Information Systems and Computer Applications

Item 40 - Operation automatic administrative documentation.
Item 41 - General purpose computer applications and business management. Types. Functions. Characteristics.
Item 42 - Installation and operation of computer applications.
Item 43 - Sharing of resources, files and data between applications.

Block 09 - Software Engineering, Analysis And Design

Item 44 - Analysis and design of computer applications.
Item 45 - Analysis and design of services in a graphical presentation.
Item 46 - Design of graphical user interfaces.
Item 47 - Design of interfaces in the context of management.
Item 48 - High-level languages \u200b\u200bin a graphical environment.
Item 49 - Multimedia Systems.
Item 50 - Quality and documentation in graphical environments.
Item 51 - Grants for developing automated 'software' (CASE tools). Types. Structure. Benefits.

Block 10 - Networking and Communications

Item 52 - Networked Systems. Types. Components and topologies.
Item 53 - Data transmission. Media. Types. Techniques. Disturbances.
Item 54 - Communication Systems Architecture. Levels. Functions. Services.
Item 55 - Connection of networked computers. Elements 'hardware' needed. Types and characteristics.
Item 56 - 'Software' network systems. Components. Functions and structure.
Item 57 - Local Area Networks. 'Hardware'. 'Software'. Shares.
Item 58 - Wide Area Networks. LAN interconnection.
Item 59 - Analysis and implementation of a networked system.
Item 60 - Installation and configuration of local network systems.
Item 61 - System Integration. Means of interconnection standards.
Item 62 - Performance Evaluation and improvement of network systems.
Item 63 - Security of network systems.
Item 64 - Operation and management of networked systems.
Item 65 - Comparative analysis between a multiuser operating system and a network system.
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Outlet Marité Et Girbaud

Theme 08 - Components 'hardware'. Motherboard. Controller cards.

  1. Index Introduction
    1. Motherboard microprocessor sockets
      2. PGA ZIF (Zero Insertion Force, Zero Insertion Force)
      4. Slot-1 Slot-A
        6. currently
      1. The Northbridge Chipset (north bridge "in English)
      2. The Southbridge (" south bridge "in English)
    3. The frequency of the Front Side Bus (FSB) and the factor
      4. multiplier
      5. BIOS and CMOS battery
    6. System Memory Slots
      1. SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module, Simple linear memory module)
      2. RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module, Linear Rambus Memory Module)
      3. DIMM (Dual In-Line Memory Module, Double linear memory module)
      1. Expansion slots Slots ISA (Industry Standard Architecture, Industrial Standard Architecture slots
      2. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect Peripheral Component Interconnect)
      3. Slots AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port Accelerated Graphics Port)
      4. PCI-Express slots
      8. Communications Ports
        1. Serial Ports RS-232 (COM)
        3. Keyboard & Mouse USB (Universal Serial Bus , Universal Serial Bus)
        4. IEEE 1394 (aka FireWire by Apple Inc. and as i.Link by Sony)
        5. Serial ATA or S-ATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)
        1. Parallel Ports IEEE 1284 ( LPT)
        2. Parallel ATA or P-ATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment Pararell)
        3. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
      9. manufacturing
      1. Factor Baby AT ATX
      3. MicroATX
      11. electrical connector Elements
    11. integrated device controllers
      3. Network Card Sound Card Video Cards
  3. controller cards Device and I / S
      HDD Controllers
      1. Parallel ATA or P-ATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment Pararell)
      2. Serial ATA or S-ATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)
      3. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface )
      2. controller cards
    2. Other E / S
        1. video card features
          1. History MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter)
          2. CGA (Color Graphics Adapter)
          3. HGC (Hercules Graphic Card)
          4. VGA (Video Graphics Array)
          5. SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) components
          1. GPU (Graphics Processing Unit)
          2. Video Memory RAMDAC
          4. Food cooling devices
          4. Connectors
          2. SVGA DVI (Digital Visual Interface)
          4. S-Video Composite Video Component Video
          6. HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)
        1. Other Cards Sound Cards Ethernet Cards
        4. Wifi Card Tuner Card Modem Cards

  1. Introduction

    The computer hardware is the set of physical components that comprise it.
    Externally, a computer is a box with a power supply, with certain connectors on both the back and up front, and generally, a CD / DVD-ROM in the front.
    Connected to this box are a series of devices that accompany it, such as keyboard, mouse, monitor, speakers, printer, scanner, ecétera.
    If we open that box, we note that the computer is composed of a plate is almost the size of the box, and which are connected a number of other devices such as microprocessor, memory, hard disk, other cards, ecétera.
    This board is called the motherboard or motherboard and is the backbone physical and logical of the entire system. Motherboard

  2. We consider the motherboard (also called motherboard) the cornerstone of the computer, as it (in one way or another) are connected all peripherals and computer components.
    Physically, it is a plastic wafer, about which there is an electronic circuit that connects different elements that are anchored on it. The main ones are:
    • The microprocessor, played in an element called socket.
    • memory, usually in the form of modules. Several chips
    • control: the Bios, chipset.
    • The expansion slots, which are connected to the controller cards.
    • Different connectors for keyboard, mouse, floppy drive, hard disk, etc..

    1. microprocessor sockets

      is where the microprocessor is installed on your computer. Sometimes there socket at all, but the microprocessor is soldered to the board, in which case it is sometimes even difficult to recognize. Is the case with many 8086, 286 and 386.

      1. PGA (Pin Grid Array, Collection Pines as regilla)

        Classic model used in the 386 and 486. It consists of a square-shaped connector hole where the legs of the chip inserted under pressure (more or less depending on the micro legs).

      2. ZIF (Zero Insertion Force, Zero Insertion Force) is electrically

        as a PGA, but thanks to a mechanical system, the microchip is inserted without effort, thus avoiding problems of broken legs.
        appeared in the age of 486 and its various versions (sockets 3, 5 and 7 in particular) have been used until it appeared the Pentium II. Slot 1

      3. is a proprietary socket for Intel Pentium II, Celeron and Pentium III early versions, which prevents use of other chip manufacturers (AMD and Cyrix mainly). There seems to previous sockets: instead of a rectangle with holes for the legs of the chip, is a slot, a kind of elongated connector such as ISA or PCI. thus avoiding problems of broken legs. Slot A

      4. is AMD's response to Slot 1. Physically both "slots" are identical, but logically and electrically are totally incompatible for reasons stated earlier. Used only by early AMD K7 Athlon.
      5. Currently

        For cost reasons, the current trend in microprocessors is to use the new format new Socket (ZIF) in its many variants and number of pins.

    2. Chipset

      English Translated literally means assembly of integrated circuits. Is the set of chips that are responsible for controlling certain computer functions, such as how it interacts with the microprocessor memory or cache, or control of PCI, AGP, USB, ecétera.
      In the PC and other systems, the chipset is made up of 2 additional circuits to the processor Home:

      1. The Northbridge ("North Bridge" in English)

        is used as a bridge between the microprocessor and memory. Controls the functions of access to and between the microprocessor, RAM, AGP graphics port, and communications with the Southbridge.

      2. The Southbridge ("south bridge" in English)

        Also known as Hub Controllers Input / Output, in English I / O Controller Hub (ICH) is an integrated circuit that is responsible for coordinating the various input devices and output and some other features of low speed in the motherboard.
        are not connected to the CPU and communicates with it indirectly through the Northbridge.

      Formerly these functions were relatively easy to perform, and the chipset only affected the performance of your computer. But the complex new buses, along with a wide range of memories and peripherals technologies, have made the importance of chipset grow enormously.
      The quality and features of the chipset will depend on:
      1. get maximum performance or microprocessor
      2. potential upgrade of computer
      3. the use of certain advanced technologies of memory and peripherals
      There is a wide range of chipsets for each type of microprocessor and bus, but both manufacturers known for their expansion in the market are Intel (which makes chipsets for motherboards designed processors of the same name) and VIA (chipset manufacture AMD processors)

    3. The frequency of Fontal Side Bus (FSB) and multiplier

      Front Side Bus or its acronym FSB (translated "front side bus) is the term used to refer to the bidirectional data bus available to the CPU to communicate with the northbridge.
      The FSB frequency performance sets the pace for all elements of the PC. This frequency is generally lower than that of current microprocessors, thus, to achieve the frequency of this latter one, the motherboard uses a multiplier. Both the frequency
      FBS as the multiplication factor are values \u200b\u200bconfiguravles by the user. Aunuqe and are factory set there who takes advantage by forcing its values \u200b\u200b(Overclocking)

    4. CMOS BIOS and BIOS (Basic Input-Output System) is the basic input / output, consists of a program embedded on a chip base plate which is responsible to perform the basic functions of management and computer configuration. Physically is a rectangular chip.
      addition, the BIOS retains certain parameters such as hard disk type, date and time of the system, etc, which keeps a CMOS memory, very low and is maintained by a battery when the computer is disconnected.
      The BIOS can be updated by removing and replacing the chip (very sensitive method) or by software, if you are of the flash-BIOS. Pila

    5. The battery system of the computer, or more correctly, the tank is responsible for preserve BIOS settings when the computer is off. Without it, every time we light would have to introduce the features hard drive, chipset, date and time, ecétera.
      is an accumulator, it is recharged when the computer is on, but over the years lost this ability and at a certain time (between 2 and 6 years) to be replaced.

    6. memory slots are the connectors on the computer's main memory. In the past, memory chips are placed one by one over the plate. To facilitate placement were grouped several memory chips soldered a plate with connectors or pins on the edge, in what is known as a module. These modules have varied in size, capability and how to connect.
      types of memory modules:

      1. SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module, Simple linear memory module)

        began to be used from the 386. Have progressed from 30 to 72 contacts. Deprecated.

      2. RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module, Linear Rambus Memory Module)

        use, in a technology called RDRAM, developed by Rambus Inc. in mid 1990 to introduce a module memory performance levels well above the SDRAM memory modules of 100 MHz and 133 MHz available in those years.
        RDRAM RIMM modules have 184 pins and due to their high operating frequencies require heat diffuser consisting of a metal plate that covers the chip module.
        Despite its RDRAM technology performance levels much higher than SDRAM technology and the first generation of DDR RAM, due to the high cost of this technology have not been widely accepted in the PC market

      3. DIMM (Dual In-Line Memory Module, memory module Linear Double)

        DIMMs are recognizable externally by having your contacts (or pins) on both sides separated.
        They come in:
        1. 168-pin for SDR SDRAM.
        2. 184 pin for DDR SDRAM.
        3. 240 contacts for DDR2 SDRAM.

    7. Expansion slots are slots plastic electrical connectors (slots) where you enter the cards. Depending on the technology that they are based have a different external appearance, with different size and color.

      1. Slots ISA (Industry Standard Architecture, Industrial Standard Architecture

        The oldest, the first PC? S. They operate at 8 MHz, sufficient to connect a modem or sound card, but very little for a video card.
        2. disused

      2. Slots PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect Peripheral Component Interconnect)

        The current standard. They offer up to 33 Mhz, reaching a maximum transfer rate 266 MB / s on the bus of 64 bits, enough for nearly all except some 3D video cards.

      3. Slots AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port Accelerated Graphics Port)

        used exclusively to connect a 3D video card. Faster than the previous ones, can reach a speed of 533 MHz with a transfer rate of 2 GB / s.

      4. PCI-Express slots

        Ees an evolution of PCI, which is able to increase the bandwidth by increasing the frequency. Mostly used to connect graphics cards.

    8. Communications Ports Ports are, so to speak, the computer link with the outside world. Speaking more technically, You can say that they are the intermediaries who are responsible for facilitating the exchange of information between your computer and peripherals. Currently the ports are integrated into the motherboard, but in some cases pre-Pentium motherboards, this was not the case, and the ports came on cards that were connected to the expansion slots.
      On the way to send / receive data, can be classified into 2: Serial Ports

      1. The information is transmitted bit by bit by sending a single bit at a time.
        Among the most important are:
        1. RS-232 (COM) Plug
          blue-green D-shaped 25-pin, however most of these pins is used, so IBM introduced a smaller connector only 9-pin which is currently used. Deprecated.
        2. Keyboard & Mouse 6-pin sockets, round purple for keyboard and mouse green
        3. USB (Universal Serial Bus, Universal Serial Bus)
          rectangular in shape, is the port used now coming to have a transfer rate of 60MB / s (version 2.0) Possibility Plug-and-Play or desconectr allowing you to connect devices to the system without rebooting. In addition, when connecting a new device, the server lists and adds the necessary software to operate.
        4. IEEE 1394 (aka FireWire by Apple Inc. and as i.Link by Sony)
          Standard platform for input / output serial data at high speed. It is typically used for interconnecting digital devices like digital cameras and camcorders to computers.
        5. Serial ATA or S-ATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) interface is
          transfer data between the motherboard and some storage devices, such as hard disk, or other high performance devices are still being developed. Serial ATA replaces the traditional Parallel ATA or P-ATA (standard is also known as IDE or ATA). The S-ATA provides faster speeds, better use when multiple disks, longer length of cable for data transmission and the ability to hot-plug disks (with the computer on.)

      2. Parallel Ports

        data bits travel together to send a full byte or more at a time. That is, it implements a physical cable or satellite for each bit of storage into a bus. Among the most important are:
        1. IEEE 1284 (LPT)
          magenta socket in the form of D with 25 pins in 2 rows, which is generally used for connecting older printers. Deprecated.
        2. Parallel ATA or P-ATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment Pararell)
          is a data transfer interface between the motherboard and some storage devices, such as hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD, ecetera. Not currently used by the implementation S-ATA.
        3. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
          is a standard interface for transferring data between different devices on the bus of the computer. In the past, was very popular among all classes of computers. It has remained popular in workplaces, high-performance servers and high end peripherals.

    9. Factor manufacturing motherboards exist in different forms and with various connectors for peripherals. To lower costs by enabling the interchangeability between motherboards, manufacturers Various standards have been defined that group recommendations on the size and arrangement of elements on them.
      However, the fact that a plate belonging to one category or another, has nothing to do, in theory, their performance and quality.

      1. Baby-AT

        The absolute standard for years. It is a 220x330 mm plate, with a certain position for the keyboard connector, expansion slots and holes for anchoring to the box and an electrical connector divided into two parts.
        are typical for cloned computers from the 286 to the first Pentium. With the increase of peripheral problems are accentuated:
        1. Poor air circulation. Huge
        2. tangle of cables that prevent access to the board.

      2. ATX are the most used today. They have better ventilation and less tangle of cables, due to the arrangement of the connectors on the motherboard. Tends to have more connectors, including any kind of USB.

      3. MicroATX compatible with the latter but smaller.

    10. electrical connector is where you connect the cables to the motherboard receives power. In Baby-AT boards are two, and the ATX one.
      One of the advantages of the ATX power supplies is that they allow off by software, ie, pressing "Shut Down" the computer turns itself off.

    11. integrated elements in modern motherboards is very common for certain components are included in the motherboard, rather than take the form of expansion cards. Is cheaper and more comfortable (cables and cards are removed), and although the components are not high-end usually sufficient for the average user.
      The most common are:

      1. device controllers generally all motherboards come with a chip that is responsible for managing hard disks, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, the diqueteras and communications ports.

      2. Network Card

        Given the expansion of networks, intranet and / or the Internet, almost all motherboards today come with a network card to connect different devices connected to each other and also to share resources among two or more computers. There are different types of adapters depending on the type of cabling or architecture that is used in the network, but currently the most common type is an interface or Ethernet using RJ-45 connector or the adapter WiFi (Wireless Fidelity) wireless networking.

      3. Sound card

        increasingly present in the base plates, are usually sufficient, even for the music lovers who are not professional.

      4. Integrated video cards to a lesser extent, are not very powerful and they share part of the computer's main memory, but Sulen be enough for office work, however not are suitable for photo editing, video, CAD / CAM, or the latest 3D games.

  3. device controller cards and I / S

    1. HDD Controllers

      An indispensable part of a computer are the hard drive controller cards and disk drives (the latter now obsolete)
      work most important thing to make the hard disk controller is to make the communication connection between the hard drive and the data bus. For this is not enough to translate the data into a form understandable but you have to control the time sequence transmission and reception.
      The hard drive is currently connected to the motherboard through:

      1. Parallel ATA or P-ATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment Pararell)

        is a data transfer interface between the motherboard and some storage devices, such as can be the hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD, ecetera. Not currently used by the implementation of S-ATA.
      2. Serial ATA or S-ATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)
        is a data transfer interface between the motherboard and some storage devices, such as be the hard disk, or other high performance devices are still being developed. Serial ATA replaces the traditional Parallel ATA or P-ATA (standard is also known as IDE or ATA). The S-ATA provides faster speeds, better use when multiple disks, longer length of cable for data transmission and the ability to hot-plug disks (with the computer on.)
      3. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
        is a standard interface for transferring data between different devices on the bus of the computer. In the past, was very popular among all classes of computers. It has remained popular in workplaces, high-performance servers and high end peripherals.

    2. Driver E / S

      1. video card which is transmitted to monitor graphic information to be presented on the screen. Features
          1. Interpret the data it receives from the processor, computers and calculators for presentation on the screen in the form of a rather large rectangle composed of individual dots of different colors (pixels). Take exit
          2. digital data resulting from this process and transforms (if necessary) into an analog signal that can understand the monitor.
        2. History
          1. MDA (Monochrome Display Adapter) Introduced in 1981. Monochrome video cards of the first computers. Working in text mode and was able to represent 25 lines of 80 characters on screen. Had a video memory of 4KB, so could only work with a page of memory. Was used with monochrome monitors, hue usually green.
          2. CGA (Color Graphics Adapter) also Introduced in 1981, was the first color graphics card launched by IBM. It was little used at first, because most buyers purchased a PC for professional use. Gaming PCs were other much more popular, and at that time were not considered to have color graphics other than the purely recreational use.
          3. HGC (Hercules Graphic Card) 1982 was marketed, and graphics on monochrome allowed a much higher resolution than the CGA, besides being compatible with the MDA, which further hurt sales of the CGA.
          4. EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) IBM Introduced in 1984 by reaching a resolution of 640x350 points and 16 colors.
          5. VGA (Video Graphics Array) The first marketed in 1988 by IBM. Estandadar has been since. Even today it is the minimum that all graphics hardware supports before loading a specific device. Offers a resolution of 640x480 pixels and 256 colors.
          6. SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) was defined in 1989 and first version was set for a resolution of 800x600 pixels and 16 colors. He was then expanded rapidly to 1024x768 pixels and 256 colors, and other more in subsequent years.
            Although the number of colors defined in the original specification, this soon became irrelevant, as the interface between the video card and VGA or SVGA monitor voltages using simple to indicate the desired color depth. Consequently, as the monitor is concerned, there is no theoretical limit to the number of distinct colors that can be displayed. To increase the number of colors that a system SVGA display can produce, not require any change in the monitor, you only need to redesign the graphics card. Because of this, major graphics chip vendors were producing parts for high density video cards color a few months after the onset of SVGA.
            On paper, the original SVGA should be replaced by the XGA standard, but the industry soon abandoned the plan to give a unique name for each higher display standard, nearly all display systems made from the late 80's to the present are called SVGA.
          7. XGA (Extended Graphics Array) Created by IBM for IBM in 1990, aims to be an improved VGA, but it is not followed by other airlines, which begin to create SVGA video cards.
        3. Components
          1. GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) is a processor (such as CPU) dedicated to graphics processing. Its purpose is to lighten the workload of the CPU and, therefore, is optimized for floating point calculations, predominantly in the 3D functions. The main GPU manufacturers that exist today (2008) on the market are ATI and NVIDIA
          2. Video Memory According to the graphics card is integrated into the motherboard (low performance) or not, use the computer's own RAM memory or have your own. Resolution as more memory and more number of colors may be processed.
          3. converter is RAMDAC RAM digital to analog. Is responsible for transforming the digital signals produced on the computer into an analog signal that is interpreted by the monitor. Directly influences Monitor refresh rates (recommended work from 75 Hz, never less than 60)
          4. cooling devices Because workloads to which they are subjected, graphics cards get very hot. If not taken into account, the heat generated can crash, block or even damage the device. To avoid this, incorporate cooling devices (heat sinks and fans) to remove excess heat from the card. Food
          5. So far the power of graphics cards had not been a major problem, however, the current trend of the new cards is to consume ever more energy. Although power supplies are becoming more powerful, the bottleneck is in the PCIe port is only capable of making a power of 150 W. For this reason, graphics cards with higher consumption which can provide PCIe include a connector that allows a direct connection between the power supply and card.
        4. Connectors
          1. standard analog SVGA the 1990's. Designed for CRT devices.
          2. DVI (Digital Visual Interface) Substitute above, was designed for maximum viewing quality in digital displays such as LCDs or projectors.
          3. Included S-Video to support televisions, DVD players, video, and game consoles.
          4. Analog Composite Video via RCA low resolution.
          5. component video quality comparable to that of SVGA, has three pins (Y, Cb and Cr)
          6. HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) emerging digital technology in 2007 which aims to replace all others.

        2. Other Cards Sound Cards
        1. allows audio input and output, plus some procesamineto signal, such as compression, decompression, or introduction of effects. Ethernet Cards
        2. allow communication between different devices connected to each other and also to share resources between two or more teams (Hard disks, CD-ROM, printers, etc.).
        3. wireless cards
          Like the previous enable communication between different devices connected to each other and also to share resources between two or more computers (hard drives, CD-ROM , printers, etc.) but wirelessly.
        4. Tuner Cards let you capture terrestrial television signals or radio. Modem Cards
        5. allow modular / demodulator for telephone communication via different computers.
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How To Refill A Brother Toner Cartridge 4040cdn

Item 01 - Representation and Information Communication

    Index
  2. Introduction What do we mean by information? Definition of Information
    2. Information along
      1. History Middle Ages Early Modern
      3. Twentieth Century XXI Century
      3. Types of Information
      1. Magnitudes
      3. Texts Images
        5. signals
    4. Digital Information
  3. Digital Representation of Information Systems
    1. numbering (positional, non-positional) changes
      1. numbering systems based
        1. Paso decimal ba
        2. Passage of a decimal to any Step
        3. base base base ba c
      2. The binary system
        1. The BIT (Binary digiIT English, binary digits)
        2. Name
          3. bit groups BYTE
        4. multiples in binary operations (arithmetic, logic)
      4. octal system hexadecimal system
    2. conversion to digital information
      2. Quantification error margin
      Consolidation
    3. Extracting information from the digital binary data
      1. Magnitudes
        1. Decimals Whole
          3. Royal
      3. Symbols and Texts Images
      4. Audio Video
    5. redundancy binary encodings
      1. Calculation of redundancy R
        3. Troubleshooting
    4. Information Communication
    1. General characteristics of the communication transmission systems
      2. According
      1. transmission system (per line, per radio)
      2. As the directionality of the transmission (Simplex, Semi-duplex, full-duplex)
      3. Depending on how you sync (Asynchronous, Synchronous)
      4. Depending on the nature of the signal (analog, digital)
    3. Problems
      1. transmission attenuation or distortion
        4. power losses
      4. Altered timing noise
    4. analog line coding
      6. digital encryption
      1. Understanding Digital Compression lossless (no loss)
        1. statistical compressors
        2. dictionary-based compressors or compressors
        3. substitutional or two-phase hybrid
      2. Understanding lossy (with loss)
        2. differential encoding based compression
        3. transformed vector quantization
        4. fractal compression techniques
        5. moving image compression (interframe)
    7. digital transmission speeds
    8. Elements of a digital communication system

  1. Introduction

    Computer The term comes from the French Informatique , coined by the engineer Philippe Dreyfus in 1962, short the words information and automatique. The computer is the body of scientific knowledge and techniques that enable automatic processing of information by devices electronic and computer systems.
    Thus, although the computer has its origin in the primitive first attempts to achieve a machine that can automatically perform arithmetic operations, although in relative terms is a young (emerging in the 60's of last century), its reality today is very different, now being essential tool in all fields of science, in any commercial activity, and is characteristic of modern society in industrialized countries, which has coined the concept of information society, which has allowed a greater degree of global intercommunication between all points on the planet.

  2. What do we mean by information?

    1. Information Definition We call all knowledge information understandable and graspable to human beings, capable of being expressed in appropriate language and be transferred to other human beings, to be shared and used.

    2. Information along

      1. History The Middle Ages storage, access and limited use of the information was made in the libraries of monasteries.
      2. In the modern age , with the birth of the printing press (Gutenberg), the books begin to be manufactured in series and come the first newspapers.
      3. In century, bursts of radio, television and the Internet
      4. Today, and in the XXI century , speaking of the information society, which led to the broader social and technology in the history of mankind, and is based on the globalization of access to huge volumes of information available in increasingly complex ways, with storage capacities upward and increasingly supports reduced.
    3. Types of Information

      1. Magnitudes are numerical (quantitative) expressed in a given unit of measurement. Texts

      2. are groups of special symbols that are directly interpretable in the human way of expressing themselves in writing. Each symbol is individually distinguishable and legible, and is composed of basic symbols of verbal communication formants called characters (letters and numbers, also called alphanumeric characters). Is called alphabet the basic set of different symbols that make up all the words of the text formants. Images

      3. is the kind of information that emulates the human capacity for vision. Directly perceived as representing the real world and its value will be greater the more information it is its size , and precision with which the image represents the real object. This is expressed with the concepts of reliability or similarity between the image and the object represented, and resolution or precision used for rendering.
      4. Signs

        are the kind of information linked to the variation of physical characteristics, perceived to be continuously over time, such as a more or less continuous succession of sounds and / or images . Frequency values \u200b\u200bas arrival of signals the same quality, precision of these are criteria to consider the information value of signals.

    4. Digital Information

      As mentioned, the two key concepts of information are to be
      1. expressed the most appropriate way for it to be maintained and systematically increased
      2. and can be communicated effectively to wherever needed, and the precise time of
      To achieve these two objectives, we have invented and developed on new tools for processing and transmission of information.
      These tools are based on digital information , which uses only two symbols, 0 and 1, for any type of data. Any information
      is susceptible be converted to digital for processing and transmission , and be retrieved later with its original features.

  3. Digital Information Representation

    The phenomenon that converts any type of digital information is called encoding and decoding reverse. To be clear about the concepts of encoding and decoding of information, one must know first how the binary numbering system. Therefore briefly enter the study numbering system.

    1. System

      numbering systems to express graphically the numbers. positional systems are where the value depends on the position (eg decimal) and other non-positional (Roman system) where the value is independent of the position. Changes

        1. numbering systems based
        1. Paso ba
          decimal integer numbers to p, q decimal places and where b is the base:
          N (b p = n-1 · b p- 1 + n p-2 · b p-2 + ... + n 1 1 · b + n 0 0 · b + n 1 -1 · b + n 2 -2 · b + ... Q + n · b -q = N (10

          Example: 1234 (5 = 194 (10 (p = 4, q = 0, b = 5)
          N (5 = n • 5 4-1 4-1 4-2 + n • 5 4-2 + ... + n 1 • 5 + n 1 0 · b 0 + n 1 -1 • 5 + n 2 ·5 -2 + ... + n 0 ·5 -0 = N (10

          N (5 = n 3 ·5 3 + n 2 ·5 2 + n 1 ·5 1
          + n 0 ·5 0 + n 1 ·5 -1 + n 2 ·5 -2
          + ... + n 0 ·5 -0 = N (10

          N (5 = 1·5 3 + 2·5 2 + 3·5 1 + 4·5 0 = N (10
          N (5 = 1,125 + 2.25 + 3.5 + 4.1 = N (10
          N (5 = 125 + 50 + 15 + 4 = N (10
          1234 (5 = 194 (10
        2. Passage of a decimal to any base
          decimal number is divided by the base until you get a ratio less than the base, then gathered the last quotient and the rest obtained in reverse order.

          Example: 1234 (10 = 14414 (5
          1234 / 5 = 246 246 / 5 = 49 Name

          groups of bits, depending on length


          4 bits nibble
        3. 8-bit byte / octet
        16-bit half word 32 bits

      2. word 64 bits double word
          1. BYTE multiples
            2. 1024 bytes
          2. 1 Kilobyte 1024 KB
          3. 2 bytes
          4. MegaByte MB (1024 KB)
            5. 1024 bytes
          5. 3 Gigabyte GB (1024 MB)
          2. 1024
        2. 4 bytes
          TB terabyte (1024 GB) 1024
          1. 5 bytes petabyte PB (1024 TB)
          2. Operations binary arithmetic operations
            4. Sum
          4. 0 = 0 0 + 0 + 1 + 1 = 1 0 = 1 1 + 1 = 0 (and hauling 1)
          5. Rest 0 to 0 = 0 0-1 = 1 (and carry 1)
            6. 1-0 = 1
          1-1 = 0
        3. Multiplication
            0 · 0 = 0
          1. 0 · 1 = 0
            1 × 0 = 0
            1 × 1 = 1



            1. Logical operations AND
            2. 0 and 0 = 0 0 and 1 = 0
              1 and 0 = 0
              1 and 1 = 1 OR

            3. 0 or 0 = 0 0 or 1 = 1
              1 or 0 = 1
              1 or 1 = 1 XOR

            2. 0 xor 0 = 0
          2. 0 xor 1 = 1
            1 xor 0 = 1 1 xor 1
            = 0




            2. system octal octal system uses 8 symbols {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7}, the advantage of this system is the ability to stay octal number to binary and vice versa.
              000 (2
              = 0
              (8
            3. 001 (2 = 1 (8


              010 (2
              = 2
              4. (8
          011 (2
          4. = 3
        (8

      3. 100 (2

        = 4
        (8
        101 (2 = 5 (8
        110 (2 = 6 (8
        111 (2 = 7 (8
        Example: 1234 (8 = 1 2 3 4 = 001 010
        001 010 011 100 011 100 = (2
        hexadecimal system hexadecimal system uses 16 symbols {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A, B, C, D, E, F} and offers the same advantage as the octal system. 0000 (2 = 0
        (16 0001 (2 = 1
        (16 0010 (2 = 2
        (16
        0011 (2 = 3 (16

      4. 0100 (2

        = 4
        (16
        0101 (2 = 5 (16
        0110 (2 = 6 (16
        0111 (2 = 7 (16
        1000 (2 = 8 (16
        1001 (2 = 9 (16
        1010 (2 = A (16
        1011 (2 = B (16
        1100 (2 = C (16
        1101 (2 = D (16
        1110 (2 = E (16
        1111 (2 = F (16
        Example: 1234 (8 = 1 2 3 4 = 0001 0010 0011 0100 = 0001001000110100
        (2
        conversion to digital information
        Quantification information is generally known as continuous analog in nature, occurring in a continuous range of values. The first step in converting to digital format, is to assume a fixed value for all analog values \u200b\u200bfall within a certain range, and this value is usually the central value of the interval considered. Other varieties of this process can be established by choosing intervals of different length, smaller in those ranges of values \u200b\u200bwhere more precision is needed.
        The error margin of error as the difference between the actual value, and the central value assumed for representation is limited by half the width of the interval. It is therefore predictable and controllable. The level of these errors can be reduced properly, and in any case below the threshold of human perception. The information is the subject of human knowledge, and is perceived by sense organs, which are analog devices based on physical and chemical reactions. Its precision is not infinite, which makes small differences are not distinguishable between analog before and after digital processing. Coding

        Once continuous range reduced to a set of discrete values, the following process is to encode these values \u200b\u200bnumerically, obtaining the set of digital numerical values \u200b\u200bin the appropriate binary code.
        5. Extracting information from the digital binary values \u200b\u200bobtained
      contain all the information contained in analog form, so you can return to retrieve it, if precautions have been observed in the processes explained above . Binary data

      1. Magnitudes Whole


      2. quantified in natural binary, more coding of the sign.


        3. Decimal Encoding
      3. separate the numbers on both sides of the coma, and position. Royal

      Encoding called floating expression, with a decimal base, and an integer exponent.

    4. Symbols and Texts The texts are the written expression of human language, and are represented separately encoding each of the symbols (characters) its component, which may be letters of an alphabet, numerals, figures not correspond to their numeric value, punctuation, special characters and control characters, and alignment.

      The coding is done using the codes

        ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) and

      1. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Code Decimal Interchange Code), especially the former. Any

        binary digital information can be grouped into blocks, and interpreted directly as a set of characters, in this case is said to be treated as text files.
        1. Images
          data are encoded as the size of the image, the position of each element of the image in two dimensions, usually called a pixel, and values \u200b\u200bthat define its color. There are many who keep such information formats (JPG, GIF, PNG, DWG, TIFF, ecétera), some of them allow compression of the information base to lose some image quality. Compression algorithms take into account certain parameters of human vision for this loss of informacón not visible to the naked eye.
        2. Audio formats There are many who keep such information (CDA, WMA, AAC, MP3, OGG, ecétera), some of them allow compression of the information base to lose some sound quality. Compression algorithms take into account certain parameters of the human ear so that this loss can not be seen informacón. Video
        3. moving images are considered, corresponding to a succession of images at a rate sufficient to create the perception of motion. Are encoded in the same way, that is, as successive encoded images. Sueleñadir are sound, which is achieved by including audio information interspersed within the format the video. The most popular video formats are VCD, SVCD, AVI, DVD. The compression of information is implied.

      2. redundancy binary encodings


        Calculation of redundancy R R = 1 - (I n
        / I
      3. t), where:

      4. I

        n = amount of information code used by
      5. I

        t = total amount of information
      5. For example, the code uses 4-bit BCD is 10 different symbols:

    5. R = 1 - (10 / 2

        4) = 1 - (10/16) = 1-0625 = 0375 = 37.5% redundancy.

      1. A little redundant is the code that takes full advantage of all the possibilities to represent information.

        Troubleshooting Sometimes it is interesting that a redundant code to facilitate the detection of errors and even repair. The

        parity bit (even or odd) is an example of redundancy for error detection. The drawback is that it is unable to detect a change in more than one bit. There are other types of methods able to correct these failures, one of these faults is to add a vertical parity bit for each group of bytes, each of which carries its own parity bit. If the error was that it can detect multiple but not correct.
          more effective methods exist such as Hamming codes
        • that can detect multiple errors and correct simple errors in proportion using fewer bits of parity. These codes consist of adding multiple parity bits placed in positions that are a power of 2, so that each protect a number of bits of data. These codes are increasingly used in the reports. If the aim is to detect errors in serial communications, special codes are produced as errors often affect several consecutive bits. These codes are called polynomial
        • or cyclic redundancy (CRC) consists of adding a residue to each block (module) for a particular value represented by a polynomial.
        Huffman codes have the special
        of using variable length codes, so that the number of bits used to encode a character will depend on the frequency of use. Another
        correcting code, the
        2 out of 3 , involves sending information in triplicate so that if two of the three bytes sent are the same we discard the third.


      2. Information Communication
        General characteristics Communication Communication is the exchange of information between two or more entities. The issuer
        is the entity that sends the information through a communication channel and receiver is the entity the recipient.

        transmission systems According to the transmission system:
      By line: twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optic cable.
    For radio: ground waves and satellite waves. According

  4. directionality of the transmission:
    1. Simplex communication takes place in only one direction.

      Semi-duplex: two-way communication exists but not simultaneously. Full-duplex: two-way communication is so simultaneously. According to the form of synchronization: Asynchronous
    2. : the issuance and receipt of the information is not made in unison.

      Synchronous: the transmission and reception of information are made Practically at once.
        1. Depending on the nature of the signal: Analog
        2. : continuous signal taking values \u200b\u200bin time. Digital
        : signal takes a finite number of values \u200b\u200b(if it only takes 2 are called binary digital signal.)
        3. transmission problems The problems associated with transmission are related to the nature of the physical means of transport, which does not have a digital response, but is intensive and extensive physical properties (inertia, resistance to change elasticity, wear interaction with signals that cross?) whose overall effect is the degradation of the transmitted signal, which reaches altered to the point of reception.
          4. The problems associated with signal transmission can be stated as:
        3. Distortion
        1. consists in changes in the shape of the signal caused the features of the environment.
          3. attenuation or power loss
        includes the loss of signal level, due to wear.
        1. Alteration Caused by timing delays and transmission times differ for different types of signals. Noise
        are unwanted signals that accompany the signal sent and displayed at the reception because it passes through the middle, and that can sometimes hide, and in any case difficult to detect.

    3. analog line coding

      While we are talking about digital type information, the transmission media used have a feature, and an analog behavior, determined by the physical transport of signals that contain information, therefore, the signals transmitted by the media are analog, while carrying sequences of digital symbols.
      is necessary then, a new adaptation to the analog line is called encoding, which is generate, for each binary symbol, a sign that suits the characteristics of the environment and to preserve the digital character that will be transmitted alternately on the line. Analog
      This adaptation also allows avoiding the major causes of loss of quality that affect the analog signals, especially the distortion or change in shape of the signal.

      1. digital encryption

        Since the transmission uses a common means of physical, information contained in the signals can be accessed by others, to be read, or to be altered, both situations are highly dangerous.
        2. The characteristics of digital information allows coding-decoding process completely digital, which makes information unintelligible to any access to it for systems that do not know the encoding type or its parameters.

      3. With digital compression to reduce the size of data to transmit, and increase the transmission speed asni, there are compression algorithms information. Understanding

        4. lossless (no loss)

      4. statistical compressors Compressors of a kind

    4. Huffman or Shannon-Fano coding


      length inversely proportional to the probability of occurrence of the message.

    5. arithmetic compressor compressors also based on the probability of a message, but in this case is used to represent floating point numbers. Compressors

      predictive

    6. pretend to predict the next message to be transmitted from the knowledge we have of the messages sent so far.

      1. dictionary-based compressors or substitutional
          1. RLE compression compressor less efficient but more simple. It is based on the replacement of a character repeated characters plus the number of repetitions. Compressors
            Lempel-Ziv (LZ)
          2. LZ78
            3. This technique is the dynamic development of a dictionary where they will be storing the chains appeared so far and that he will assigning identifiers, so that if there is a string that is already eldiccionario be sent your login. One of the problems of this method is to define the infinite growth of the dictionary. LZ77

            4. This method keeps track of characters sent, but do not build a dictionary itself, but maintain a "history (or window)" input and a buffer to overtake. " This compression method is used in most current compressors, for example, make use of it PK-ZIP, RAR, ARJ, etc..
          1. compressors or two-phase hybrid current compressors used both methods (statistical and substitutional) to compress more optimally.
          2. Understanding lossy (with loss) is mostly used for encoding media files, where it is not so important that the information received is accurate and it is very important to comprehension. Differential Coding
            1. The sequence of values \u200b\u200bare represented as the difference from previous value.
            2. processed based compression is based on the sampled image representation in terms of frequency content of the image.
              3. vector quantization
            Division of the image into rectangles of fixed size and is based on the use of a codebook
          previously establishing, in the wake of the statistics of a group of test images that are similar in the image content to be compressed.
        3. Fractal Compression
          Similar to the technique, but instead of selecting the most similar block book, you can apply a geometric transform to blocks of the codebook to match better with the block of pixels being evaluated.
        2. compression techniques motion pictures (interframe)
      2. The understanding is based on the elimination of redundancy that is caused by the minimal differences between successive images.

          2. Baud
        2. digital digital transmission is characterized by a parameter, which is the bit rate, expressed in baud (symbols per second), or as homogeneous bits / Kbits / Mbits per second.
          3. Elements of a digital communication system
        3. +---------------- +-------------------+ --- + COMPRESSION CODING oriented coding that the receiver can detect and correct errors. To send the data, these are transformed into an analog signal that can be sent through the communication channel. The reception
          process is carried out investments. It decodes the analog signal is detected and corrected faults. If appropriate data is decompressed and decrypted. And finally decodes the information so that it can be understood by the receiver.
Posted by admin at 7:52 AM 0 comments

Sunday, March 2, 2008

Patricia Nabidad Fotos



Francisco Aguirre has specialized in civil society organizations and their links with the state and the market.
In this context my experience and background includes:
own English-Writing-Castilian. Oral and written English.
-perfect understanding of texts in Italian and Portuguese.
-member jury of the World Bank Small Grants, host Argentina, 2006 and 2007.
-Production of content for web-sites.
View: www.brisasocial.org.ar

Formulation of social projects. Project Formulation
as PCM (Project Cycle Management) Training acquired in 2006 and 2007 with the Foreign Ministry Argentina and JICA International Cooperation Agency of Japan in Argentina.
-Good knowledge of Internet tools and word processing. "I possess
broadband in my office.
-Creator of multimedia material of interest.
-Tutor e-learning. Moodle technology.
-Experience in developing institutional capacity for local NGOs.
La Plata, Argentina, January, 2009
Our ongoing communication:


Alcides Francisco Aguirre
alcidesaguirrelp@gmail.com
cronista3sector@gmail.com
La Plata, Argentina
September, 2009


Inglés: Alcides
Francisco Aguirre is a specialist in NGO and its link with State and market.
Considering this background my experience and trajectory includes:
-Own English-English writing. Fluent oral and writing English.
-Perfect comprehension of Italian and Portuguese.
-Member of the board of judges to the contest "Pequeñas Donaciones" World Bank Argentina, years 2006 and 2007.
-Own production of web-sites contents.

See: www.brisasocial.org.ar

-Social project formulation
-Project formulation according to PCM (Project Cycle Management. Trained by Argentine Cancillery, JICA, Japan International Cooperation Agency in Argentina.
-Very good skills in internet tools and text processors.
-Own broad band in my office.
-Creator of multimedial material of social interest.
-E-learning tutor. Moodle technology.
-Experience in institutional capacity building in local NGOS.

La Plata, Argentina
September, 2009

Our permanent communication:
Alcides Francisco Aguirre
alcidesaguirrelp@gmail.com
cronista3sector@gmail.com
Posted by admin at 9:09 AM 0 comments
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